| Puerto Rican Campaign | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of the Spanish-American War | |||||||
Map of the Puerto Rican Campaign Illustrating Operations July 25-August 12, 1898, and showing Municipality borders in 1898. {Blue} are US Naval Forces, {Red} are US land forces, and {Green} are Spanish ground forces. Map of Puerto Rico under the USA and Spanish flags from August 14 til September 19, 1898. The 23 blue-colored municipalities are under USA flag and the 55 yellow-colored municipalities are under Spanish flag |
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| Belligerents | |||||||
Kingdom of Spain
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United States | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Manuel Macías y Casado | Nelson A. Miles William T. Sampson |
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| Strength | |||||||
| Spain: 8,000 Puerto Rico: 10,000[2] |
15,472 [2] | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| 17 dead 88 wounded 324 captured [2] |
5 dead 43 wounded[2] |
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The Puerto Rican Campaign was an American military sea and land operation on the island of Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War. The offensive began on May 12, 1898, when the United States Navy attacked the archipelago’s capital, San Juan. Though the damage inflicted on the city was minimal, the Americans were able to establish a blockade in the city’s harbor, San Juan Bay. On June 22, the cruiser Isabel II and the destroyer Terror delivered a Spanish counterattack, but were unable to break the blockade and the Terror was damaged.
The land offensive began on July 25, when 1,300 infantry soldiers led by Nelson A. Miles disembarked of the coast of Guánica. After controlling the first skirmish, the Americans advanced to Coamo, where they engaged Puerto Rican and Spanish troops in battle. The battle concluded when the allied soldiers retreated after the battle left two dead on their side, and four on the American side. The United States was able to seize control of Fajardo on August 1, but were forced to withdraw on August 5 after a group of 200 Puerto Rican-Spanish soldiers led by Pedro del Pino gained control of the city, while most civilian inhabitants fled to a nearby lighthouse. The Americans encountered larger opposition as they advanced towards the main island’s interior. They engaged in two crossfires in Guamani River and Coamo, both of which were inconclusive as the allied soldiers retreated. A battle in San Germán concluded in a similar fashion with the Spanish retreating to Lares.
On August 9, 1898, American troops that were pursuing units retreating from Coamo encountered heavy resistance in Aibonito and retreated after six of their soldiers were injured. They returned three days later, reinforced with artillery units and attempted a surprise attack. In the subsequent crossfire, confused soldiers reported seeing Spanish reinforcements nearby and five American officers were gravely injured, which prompted a retreat order. All military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended on August 13, after U.S. President William McKinley and French Ambassador Jules Cambon, acting on behalf of the Spanish government, signed an armistice whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territories of Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Philippines and Guam.
In 1890, Captain Alfred Thayler Mahan, a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker, wrote a book titled The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued for the creation of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British Royal Navy. Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean Sea which would serve as coaling and naval stations, and which would serve as strategical points of defense upon the construction of a canal in the Isthmus.[3]
This idea was not new, since William H. Seward, the former Secretary of State under the administrations of various presidents, among them Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses Grant, had stressed that a canal be built either in Honduras, Nicaragua or Panama and that the United States annex the Dominican Republic and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba. The idea of annexing the Dominican Republic failed to receive the approval of the U.S. Senate and Spain did not accept the 160 million dollars which the U.S. offered for Puerto Rico and Cuba.[3]
Captain Mahan made the following statement to the War Department:
| “ | Having therefore no foreign establishments either colonial or military, the ships of war of the United States, in war will be like land birds, unable to fly far from their own shores. To provide resting places for them where they can coal and repair, would be one of the first duties of a government proposing to itself the development of the power of the nation at sea.[4] | ” |
Since 1894, the Naval War College had been formulating plans for war with Spain. By 1896, the Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan which included military operations in Puerto Rican waters. Not only was Puerto Rico considered valuable as a naval station, Puerto Rico and Cuba were also abundant in a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked: sugar. [5]
Following the sinking of the battleship Maine in Havana harbor, Cuba, the United States forwarded an ultimatum to Spain to withdraw from Cuba. In response, Spain broke off diplomatic relations with the United States, and on April 23, 1898, Spain declared war. On April 25, the U.S. Congress declared that a state of war between the United States and Spain had existed since April 20.[6] One of the United States' principal objectives in the Spanish-American War was to take control of Spanish possessions in the Atlantic — Puerto Rico and Cuba — and their possessions in the Pacific — the Philippines and Guam.[7]
On April 27, U.S. ships, the monitor USS Puritan, the armored cruisers USS New York, and the USS Cincinnati, bombarded the Spanish fortifications at Matanzas Bay in Cuba and, by July 16, an armistice was signed at the Arbol de La Paz (a large ceiba tree) by U.S. and Spanish forces. The United States then dispatched its fleet to Puerto Rico.[8] Two prominent leaders of the Puerto Rican section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, Dr. Julio J. Henna and Roberto H. Todd,[9] had written to U.S. President McKinley asking that Puerto Rico be included in whatever intervention was planned for Cuba as early as March 10. They even provided the U.S. government with information about the Spanish military presence on the island.[10]
With the outbreak of war, the Spanish Crown sent the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Puerto Rican Provisional Battalions to defend Cuba against the American invaders, depleting the Puerto Rican troops in the island. The 1st Puerto Rican Provisional Battalion, composed of the Talavera Cavalry and Krupp artillery, was sent to Santiago de Cuba where they battled the American forces in the Battle of San Juan Hill. After the battle, the Puerto Rican Battalion suffered a total of 70% casualties which included their dead, wounded, MIA’s and prisoners.[11] The Spanish appointed Governor of Puerto Rico, Manuel Macías y Casado, declared martial law, resolving to resist the American forces.[12] He declared: “Providence will not permit that in these countries which were discovered by the Spanish nation the echo of our language should ever cease to be heard, nor that our flag should disappear before the eyes…. Long live Puerto Rico, always Spanish. Long live Spain.”[12] Macías y Casado hoped that a grant of autonomy would ensure that Puerto Ricans would remain loyal to the Spanish crown.[12]
The Spanish Crown was unaware that, at the time, the United States had successfully infiltrated the island with a number of spies, among them Henry Howard Whitney, Henry Ward, George Bronson Brea, William Freeman, James Dewel, Frederick Ober and Edwin Emerson Jr.[13]
According to a story published in Century magazine in September 1898, Edwin Emerson,Jr. was pretending to be a German journalist. He presented himself to the German Consul in St. Thomas and asked for the names of Puerto Ricans of German descent whom he could interview. Among the names which the consul gave him were that of the Riefkohl family of the town of Maunabo. Upon his arrival in the town of Maunabo he met 14 year old Rudolph W. Riefkohl and asked the lad in German if he had a map of Puerto Rico (Emerson had lost his). Riefkohl answered that he did, however it was decidedly too big for Emerson’s use. Riefkohl returned home, not knowing that Emerson was a spy, and quickly drew another with a depiction of the major ports and harbors of Puerto Rico.[13] Emerson used the map and it is believed by some that he may have given the map to General Nelson A. Miles, influencing the general’s decision as to the disembarkation points for the invasion of Puerto Rico. A photostatic copy of Riefkohl’s map was published in the Century article.[14]
On May 8, 1898, USS Yale captured a Spanish freighter, the Rita in San Juan Bay, thus being the first hostile encounter between the warring sides in Puerto Rico. On May 9, Yale fought a brief battle with an auxiliary cruiser of Spain, name unknown, resulting in a Spanish victory. Around this time, Captain Ángel Rivero Méndez was assigned the command of the Spanish forces in the fortress of San Cristóbal in San Juan. On May 10, the Yale returned to San Juan Bay, Rivero-Méndez ordered his men to open fire upon the USS Yale using an Ordoñez 15 centimeter cannon, thus becoming the first attack against the Americans in Puerto Rico during the Spanish-American War.[15] For his actions, Captain Rivero-Mendez was awarded the "Cruz de la Orden de Merito Militar" (The Cross of the Order of the Military Merit) first class.[15]
The Bombardment of San Juan or the First Battle of San Juan (not to be confused with the Battle of San Juan Hill or the Battle for the Río San Juan de Nicaragua) refers to an American naval attack on the fortifications of San Juan, Puerto Rico during the Spanish-American War. For weeks, the United States Navy had been anxiously awaiting the arrival of the Spanish fleet under Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete, unaware that he had already eluded them and slipped his squadron into the Bay of Santiago.[17] On May 12, U.S. Admiral William T. Sampson and a fleet of 10 American ships arrived in San Juan to bombarded the city's citadels. After causing much damage to the Spanish defenses and receiving minor damage, low on coal and ammunition, Sampson ordered a cease fire and returned to Havana, Cuba and then to Florida for repairs and supplies.[18] The residents of San Juan were furious with Rivero and blamed him for the destruction caused to their city by the American bombardments. Nothing came of those accusations and Capt. Rivero-Méndez was ordered to turn over the keys of all the military installations in San Juan to Captain Henry A. Reed of the U.S. Army after the Treaty of Paris of 1898 was signed.[15]
On June 22, 1898, the USS Saint Paul under the command of Captain Charles Sigsbee arrived at San Juan Bay from Cuba and joined the blockade. Shortly after midday an old Spanish cruiser named Isabel II set off from San Juan to engage the Saint Paul under protection of shore batteries. She opened fire on Saint Paul at long range without success in an attempt to break the blockade. Terror, a Spanish destroyer docked in San Juan for repairs, attempted to cover the cruiser’s escape with a torpedo attack but was thwarted when her rudder was put out of action by a direct hit from the Saint Paul. The breaking of the Terror’s rudder caused the ship to turn, allowing the Saint Paul to score direct hits near the Terror’s waterline, disabling one of her engines and causing her to list. The Terror gave up the attack and returned to port, followed by Isabel II. On June 26 the Saint Paul was relieved by the USS Yosemite, which continued to blockade the port.[19]
On June 28, 1898, two American cruisers fought with a squadron of Spanish warships. This squadron consisted of one cruiser, two gunboats and one blockade runner. During the engagement, the Spanish blockade runner was heavily damaged by the American ships and ran aground. About a week later the a U.S. cruiser destroyed the runner where she was stuck.
The Spanish forces expected the Americans to attack the northern region of the island and concentrated their defenses around San Juan and Arecibo. The Spanish government was also aware of a planned landing by the Americans in Fajardo, located on the east coast and had that city fortified. However, the southern and western regions of Puerto Rico were left with little or no defenses at all.[20]
After Cuba was taken, President McKinley approved the land invasion of Puerto Rico by way of Fajardo, taking into consideration that the Spaniards had fortified San Juan, where they expected the initial attack. A convoy of ships left Tampa, Florida and on July 21 another convoy, which included the USS Yale, USS Massachusetts, USS Gloucester and the USS Dixie, departed from Guantánamo for a 4 day journey to Puerto Rico.[21]
Major General Nelson A. Miles, Commanding General of the Army, was aboard the USS Yale. While approaching the Strait of Mona of Puerto Rico, Miles opted to land his troops in the southern region of the island, picking Guánica as his landing zone. He sent patrol boats to notify all other convoys of his decision and order them to join him. His decision was based on his belief that the city of Fajardo would be fortified and he feared that small gun boats based on the shore could disrupt a landing there.[20][21]
On July 25, Miles and a convoy of ships, under the command of Naval Captain Francis J. Higginson, arrived at Guánica Bay. The following troop carrying ships were part of the convoy: USS Yale with Generals Miles and Garretson, plus 1,300 infantry soldiers of the 3,300 total that were assigned for the initial invasion, USS Columbia, USS Lampasas, USS Windom, USS Comanche with General Guy V. Henry, Nueces, USS Unionist, USS Stillwater, Rita and USS Specialist (both the Nueces and the Rita were Spanish ships which were confiscated by the Yale). These ships were accompanied by the following battleships, destroyers and cruisers: the flagship USS Massachusetts, USS Gloucester, USS Dixie and USS Wasp.[20][21]
In 1898, Guánica was a small barrio within the jurisdiction of the town of Yauco. It had 60 houses in all and its only defense was eleven members of the 4th Volante de Yauco, a Puerto Rican militia unit, under the command of Lieutenant Enrique Méndez López. When the Guánica lighthouse keeper Robustiano Rivera spotted the approaching convoy, he immediately gave the alert to the residents of the barrio. All of the residents, with the exception Agustín Barrenechea, Vicente Ferrer, Juan María Morciglio, Simón Mejil, Salvador Muñoz, Cornelio Serrano and Pascual Elena who welcomed the invaders, abandoned their homes and joined Rivera on his journey to Yauco where he broke the news of the invading forces to the city’s mayor.[21]
The Gloucester was the first ship to set anchor in the Bay of Guánica. Twenty-eight sailors and Marines, under the command of Lieutenants H. P. Huse and Wood, departed from the ship on rafts and landed on the beach. The Marines lowered the Spanish flag from the beach flagpole and replaced it with the American flag. They then proceeded to set up a machine gun nest and placed barbed wire around their perimeter. The first land skirmish in Puerto Rico between the Puerto Rican militia and the American forces occurred when Lt. Méndez López and his men attacked and opened fire on the Americans. During the small battle which followed, the Americans returned fire with their machine gun and the Gloucester began to bombard the Spanish position. Lt. Méndez López and three of his men were wounded and the militia unit was forced to retreat to the town of Yauco.[20][21]
After the skirmish was over, men from the Lampasas landed on the beach to secure the area and to build a landing dock. 3,300 American soldiers under the command of General Miles landed. The units that landed were the 6th Volunteer Regiments of Illinois and Massachusetts, an Artillery battalion, five battery companies, two engineer companies and a medical unit.[21] The men who had not abandoned the barrio of Guanica swore allegiance to the United States. Garretson named Agustín Barrenechea mayor of Guanica and Simón Mejil the chief of police. On the afternoon of the 25th, Garretson left Guánica with seven companies of the 6th Massachusetts and one company of the 6th Illinois and headed towards Yauco.[21]
Secretary of War Russell A. Alger learned about the landing at Guanica the next day when he read an Associated Press report in a local Washington, D.C. newspaper. The War Department had ordered Miles to invade Puerto Rico by way of San Juan and therefore Alger was completely surprised with the report. Miles would have been subject to disciplinary actions had the invasion not gone so smoothly. Alger received the following cable from Miles three days after the invasion:[22]
| “ | Spanish troops are retreating from southern part of Puerto Rico. This is a prosperous and beautiful country. The Army will soon be in mountain region. Weather delightful; troops in the best of health and spirit. Anticipate no insurmountable obstacles in future results. Results thus far have been accomplished without loss of a single life.[22] | ” |
After Rivera, the keeper of the Guánica lighthouse, notified Atilio Gaztambide, the mayor of the town of Yauco, located six miles (10 km) north of Guánica, of the American invasion of Guánica, the mayor in turn notified Governor Macías via telegraph. Governor Macías ordered Captain Salvador Meca and his 3rd company of the 25th Patria Battalion from Yauco to head for Guánica. Meca and his men were joined by Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Puig, who assumed command of the Spanish forces at Hacienda Desideria two miles (3 km) from Guánica. Puig arrived with two companies known as "Cazador Patria Battalion", and they were joined by Puerto Rican volunteers, the Civil Guards, and mounted guerrillas from the towns of Yauco and Sabana Grande. Puig had the men positioned on both sides of the road that ran from Guánica to the coffee Hacienda Desideria (owned by Antonio Mariani) in Yauco, as well as an infantry company positioned on a hill south of the hacienda.[23]
In the meantime, Garretson, set out of Guánica with his men towards Yauco with the intention of capturing the Yauco rail terminus that ran between that town and the City of Ponce, the largest city in the southern region of the island.[23] Garretson and his men arrived in the darkness of night and was informed by his scouts of the possibility of a hostile situation at the Hacienda Desideria. He ordered the Illinois company and two companies (companies L and M) of the 6th Massachusetts to occupy a small hill on his right that overlooked the hacienda.[23]
Captain San Pedro detected the movements of the American troops from his positions on a nearby hill and ordered his men to open fire. Garretson then ordered a direct attack on the Spanish and Puerto Rican forces in the hacienda. At day break, the 6th Massachusetts overran the Spanish forces and suffered four casualties.[23] Puig was expecting reinforcements from Yauco which did not arrive and was ordered to disengage and retreat. Before retreating the right wing of the Spanish force, which was not overrun, initiated a flanking attack against two positions held by the Illinois and Massachusetts companies. The unexpected strength of the Spanish force caused some of the 6th Massachusetts troops to momentarily panic, but the Spanish forces were eventually driven off. Puig and his forces suffered two officers and three soldiers wounded and two soldiers dead.[23]
Puig and his men retreated towards Yauco, but failed to destroy the rail terminus which connected the town to the city of Ponce, and proceeded to march towards the town of Peñuelas. Garretson’s troops entered Yauco in the afternoon of July 26 and on July 27 Puig’s men continued their march, leaving their artillery and heavy equipment behind, passing the towns of Adjuntas and Utuado and finally arriving at the town of Arecibo on the northern coast of the island on July 29.[23] Col. Puig, believing that he would be dishonored and accused by the Spanish Government of abandoning military equipment during his retreat, committed suicide on August 2.[24]
Major General Nelson A. Miles, upon learning about the lack of discipline of the 6th Massachusetts during the battle, ordered an investigation. The 6th Massachusetts was sent on a hard march from Guánica to Ponce as punishment and the regimental commander, a lieutenant colonel, a major, and a captain resigned upon request.[23]
On August 1, the USS Puritan under the command of Captain Frederic W. Rodgers, was sailing by the coastline of the city of Fajardo, when Rogers noticed the "Faro de Las Cabezas de San Juan" (Cape San Juan lighthouse) which was supposed to be the landing site for the US Army in Puerto Rico. Rodgers ordered some of his men ashore, which included Puerto Rican volunteers, with the mission of posting the American Flag atop the lighthouse.[25]
On August 2, three more ships, the USS Amphitrite, USS Leyden, and the USS Hannibal arrived and joined the Puritan. The 25-man Spanish garrison stationed in the city became aware of the American presence and, after notifying their superiors in San Juan, were told to withdraw. When Dr. Santiago Veve Calzada, the mayor of the city, realized that the garrison was gone and that the city was defenseless against the invading Americans, he implored the Spanish authorities in San Juan to dispatch troops to defend his city.[25] Believing that the Spanish forces would not come to his aid, Dr. Santiago Veve Calzada then went to the lighthouse to seek protection for the city from the Americans. On the afternoon of August 3, Dr. Veve Calzada entered the city with a contingent of Marines and the United States flag was hoisted over the Fajardo Customs House and City Hall.[25]
On August 4, Governor General Macias sent Colonel Pedro del Pino and 200 men to recapture the city. When Colonel Pino entered Fajardo he found it nearly deserted because the residents, fearing a battle, had fled to the Fajardo lighthouse. Pino waited until darkness fell and then ordered his men to attack the lighthouse. The Marines signaled the ships that they were under attack and the ships began to bombard the shore in a protective pattern. The Spanish forces retreated back to the city.[25]
The following day U.S. Marine Lieutenant John A. Lejeune came ashore with a detachment of Marines and evacuated the civilians and Marines for transport to Ponce, and the lighthouse was abandoned. Meanwhile, in the City of Fajardo, Pino’s men tore down the United States flags that flew over the Customs House and City Hall and returned to San Juan after verifying that the lighthouse was abandoned, displaying the flags as his trophies of war. It was the only time that American forces were forced to withdraw from any position during the campaign in Puerto Rico.[25]
After the town of Yauco was taken, Major General Nelson A. Miles decided to attack the City of Ponce by sea and by land. Garretson’s 6th Illinois and 6th Massachusetts had returned to Guanica and after the troops rested, Garretson and his men were ordered to move eastward to Ponce. Lt. Col. Rafael Martinez Illecas, in charge of the Spanish forces in that city, had pulled out, leaving behind a small garrison of 300 volunteers to hold the town.[26] When the American forces arrived in Ponce they met no resistance and the Spanish volunteers surrendered to the invaders. The American forces were not the only ones who participated in the taking of Ponce. Members of the Puerto Rican Commission, which included the leader of the Intentona de Yauco revolt, Antonio Mattei Lluberas and his group, arrived in Ponce aboard the USS St. Louis and were assigned to the headquarters of General Miles. From this group Miles organized the "Porto Rican Scouts", which was later assigned to General Theodore Schwan, under the command of Edwardo Lugo Viñas.[27] Miles then ordered Brigadier General Peter G. Hains and the men of the 3rd Illinois, 4th Ohio and 4th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiments to take Arroyo, a small port 60 miles east of Ponce that served the larger, nearby coastal town of Guayama.[26] Arroyo was taken on August 2 and on August 5 Hanes ordered the 4th Ohio, the 3rd Illinois and a battery of Sims-Dudley guns, manned by Company G of the 4th Ohio, to capture Guayama.[26]
Spanish forces were entrenched on the crest of two small hills, between which the road from Arroyo to Guayama ran. The Americans had crossed a stream in front of the hills when suddenly the Spanish opened fire. The Americans protected their position by the stream and increased their fire power as more reinforcements arrived.[26] The outnumbered Spanish troops retreated to Guayama as the Americans made their advance on the hills. The firefight, which lasted half an hour, left three American wounded. When the 4th Ohio entered the town they discovered that the Spaniards had fled north and abandoned the city, ending the Battle of Guayama. General John Rutter Brooke used the Cautiño Residence (Casa Cautiño) by the town square in Guayama as his military headquarters.[26]
On August 6, Colonel Coit sent two companies of the 4th Ohio on a reconnaissance mission across and beyond a cast iron bridge that crossed the Río Guanamí (Guamani River). The road beyond the bridge was essential for General Hains' projected advance to the town of Cayey.[22] The 4th Ohio observed elements of Spain’s 6th Provisional Battalion under the command of Julio Cervera Baviera entrenched in Guanamí Heights, six miles north of the bridge. The 4th felt that they were too strongly entrenched to attempt an assault at the time.[26] The 4th Ohio requested reinforcements and on August 9, attacked the Spaniards and a short firefight erupted. The numerical superiority of the Americans forced the Spanish to retreat from Guanami Heights.[22][26] This battle was the costliest battle yet for the Americans since their landing at Guanica, as it resulted in seven wounded. The Spanish forces suffered 2 dead and 15 wounded.[22]
Shortly after the American soldiers disembarked, a group of Spanish and Puerto Rican units began moving from Ponce to Aibonito, marching through the Carretera Central (Central Road). The caravan was composed of two companies of the Batallón de Cazadores de la Patria (Battalion of the Motherland’s Hunters) and some members of the Civil Guard and a Puerto Rican guerilla force. A total of 248 infantry men and 42 members of the cavalry formed the battalions under the command of Lt. Col. Rafael Martínez Illescas, the same person who was in charge of the Ponce garrison.[28] Traveling by foot, the journey would last two days. The group decided to spend one night in the resort of the town of Coamo known as the Baños de Coamo before continuing their march in the morning.[28][29] Martínez Illescas immediately ordered the construction of several trenches; while building these, the soldiers were ambushed by an anti-Spanish guerilla force, led by Pedro María Descartes, who managed to kill a member of the Civil Guard.[28]
Meanwhile, two battalions of volunteers from Wisconsin and Pennsylvania, led by Generals Oswald H. Ernst and James H. Wilson, settled on opposite sides of the road to Coamo.[28] On August 9, 1898, the Americans began their offensive, opening cannon fire against the city and completing their attack with artillery fire, the 3rd and 4th Regular Pennsylvania Artillery to provide artillery support for the frontal assault on the Baños, damaging the resort.[29][30] The Americans intended to encircle and defeat the defenses in the city. A group of soldiers entered the city from the backside, having advanced through a river nearby. The rear assault was reinforced by Wilson’s army under General Ernst, attempting to trap the allied soldiers in a crossfire, employing a tactic known as the pincer movement.[31] Martínez Illescas was surprised by the attack and led an improvised attack, but he was killed in the crossfire along with his second-in-command, leaving Captain Hita in charge, who ordered his men to surrender. Half of the allied troops ignored the order, and continued the attack, Troop C galloped at top speed north from the Baños de Coamo, after finding the resort abandoned by the Spanish.[29] Hita’s men were sent to a prisoner-of-war camp located a Río Descalabrado, while the men who continued to attack retreated to Aibonito when they realized that the Americans were using the pincer movement tactic.[31]
Brigadier General Theodore Schwan and 2,896 men of his Independent Brigade had landed in Guanica and marched towards occupied Yauco. Schwan and his men were ordered to move westward and to capture the city of Mayagüez. Colonel Julio Soto Villanueva ordered 1,500 Spanish Regulars of the 24th Rifle Battalion, six companies of the Alfonso XIII auxiliaries, and other scattered Spanish and Puerto Rican guerilla forces dispatched from the garrison at Mayagüez to meet and defeat Schwan. The Spanish forces entrenched themselves at a high ridge called Silva Heights, located at a road near the town of Hormigueros.[22]
Schwan’s troops arrived in the town of San Germán and continued the march towards their objective. Troop A of Schwan’s 5th Cavalry approached Silva Heights and were soon engaged in a firefight when the Spanish forces opened fire. The Americans were aided by two companies of the 19th Infantry, supported by artillery and Gatling guns, as well as the 11th Infantry. The Spanish forces retreated after the American reinforcements brought them under intense fire.[22] Schwan’s men set up camp on Silva Heights for the night and the following day they continued their drive to Mayagüez. They arrived the following morning to find that the Spanish forces had abandoned the city to retreat to the east towards Lares. Schwan did not follow Soto Villanueva, but instead was ordered to take the town of Las Marías. The outcome of the Silva Heights Battle left 3 Spanish dead, 6 wounded, and 136 prisoners. Schwan’s brigade suffered 15 wounded and 2 killed in action.[22]
The American cavalry pursued the soldiers that had retreated from Coamo, but were not able to reach them until the units had entered Aibonito Pass, a region more commonly known as Asomante. The region had been prepared by allied Puerto Rican and Spanish troops, who had built a trench and placed soldiers and equipment around the foliage.[32] As soon as the soldiers noticed the presence of the invading unit they opened cannon fire. The cavalry received infantry reinforcements, which were received by battery fire. Six American soldiers were injured in the crossfire, prompting a retreat order.[32] The allied units (Spanish and Puerto Rican) lost five soldiers and two civil guards.[32] During the following two days the Americans decided to do a battlefield reconnaissance and Colonel S. Reber, developed a croquis of the Aibonito Pass. Spies were deployed throughout Coamo, including a Puerto Rican separatist named Carlos Patterne, who was able to enter the city without suspicion and contact Rufino Huertas, a separatist teacher.[33] Huertas gave Patterne a series of defense plans that were previously developed and organized by Martínez Illescas.[33] While inactive, the Puerto Rican soldiers deployed in Asomante completed rounds every two hours, working four hours daily. They mostly ate beans, some rice and meat, while conserving several cracker packs for Spanish reinforcements that were supposed to arrive.[34] They slept in improvised huts that did not protect them from the rain.[34]
The American commanders decided to attack the trenches with artillery, while sending a large group to Barranquitas, from which they would try to attack the allied troops from the back.[35] At 10:30 a.m. Captain R.D. Potts led part of the 3rd Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment through the central highway to Aibonito. Lieutenants Bliss and O'Hern led two units with similar equipment. At 1:00 p.m. the allied troops opened cannon fire as the Americans entered their range.[36] Potts ordered the deployment of two batteries while O'Hern received orders from Commander Landcaster to set a cannon at a distance of a 100 yards to the vanguard’s right.[36] They intended to defeat the a small group led by Captain Hernaíz. Shrapnel from allied cannon fire was falling close to Lancaster’s location, and he asked Potts to help him by deploying a battery nearby. One of Hernaíz’s Placensias cannons overheated, which forced him to order a temporary cease to the offensive.[37] Landcaster believed that the opposition had been annihilated, ordered an advance. However the allied fire was renewed, this time supported by Mauser rifle fire. The sudden attack caused confusion among some soldiers, who reported seeing a second Spanish unit nearby.[38] Fearing that the allied units could capture the American equipment, Landcaster ordered a retreat. Lieutenant Hains was gravely injured by a Mauser bullet, being replaced by Sergeant John Long. Meanwhile, most of Potts' men fled the battlefield. In the crossfire the allied forces overpowered the American infantry, using Mauser fire to disorganize their artillery,[39] during which time four American officials were gravely injured including Long, Lieutenant Harris, Captain E.T. Lee and Corporal Oscar Sawanson.[40] Private Frederick Yough, Corporal August Yank, George J. Bruce and Private Sices also received injuries, with Yough subsequently dying. Harris' position was filled by O'Hern, while Sawanson was fatally shot while trying to support the artillery. In total the allied units had only an injured artillery man, while the American side had two dead and five injured. Wilson’s camp was the first to receive a telegram from General Miles notifying him of the amnesty declared by the signing of the Treaty of Paris. The Americans sent Bliss to Asomante, but Nouvilas refused to suspend the hostilities after receiving a telegram from Macías denying any peace treaty.[41] All military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended August 13, after President William McKinley and French Ambassador Jules Cambon, acting on behalf of the Spanish government, signed an armistice whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territory of Puerto Rico.[10]
The Puerto Rico Campaign, which began with the Yales’s capture of the Rita on May 8 and ended on August 13 after the Treaty of Paris was signed, was short compared to the other campaigns in the Spanish American War, because the war came to an end before the military objective of the campaign was completed. Among the factors which benefited the invaders in the short campaign was that the Puerto Ricans who resided in the southern and western towns and villages resented Spanish rule and tended to view the Americans as their liberators.[22] Some Puerto Rican leaders such as José de Diego and Eugenio María de Hostos expected the United States to grant the island its independence[42][43] and in the case of Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón and the committee which he headed, greeted General Miles and the invaders in Ponce with banquets.[44] Believing that Puerto Rico would gain its independence, a group of men staged an uprising in Ciales which became known as "El Levantamiento de Ciales" or the "Ciales Uprising of 1898" and proclaimed Puerto Rico to be a republic. The Spanish authorities who were unaware that the cease fire had been signed brutally suppressed the uprising[45] Another reason which can explain why the campaign was short and not as violent as the others is that the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Puerto Rican Provisional Battalions where in Cuba defending that island against the American invaders.
As stated in the introduction, the Puerto Rican Battalion suffered a total of 70% casualties which included their dead, wounded, MIA’s and prisoners.[11] The Spanish, Puerto Ricans and Americans that participated in the campaign totaled 33,472. Of this total 18,000 were Spanish, 10,000 were Puerto Rican and 15,472 were American military personnel. The Spanish and Puerto Rican suffered 429 casualties which included 17 dead, 88 wouded and 324 captured. The American forces suffered 43 casualties: 3 dead and 40 wounded.[2] The commander of Spain’s 6th Provisional Battalion, Julio Cervera Baviera gained notoriety as the author of a pamphlet called La defensa de Puerto Rico, which supported Governor General Manuel Macías y Casado and in an attempt to justify Spain’s defeat against the United States, falsely blamed the Puerto Rican volunteers in the Spanish Army of the fiasco[46] A group of angry Sanjuaneros agreed to challenge Cervera to a duel if the commander did not retract his pamphlet. The men drew lots for this honor; it fell to José Janer y Soler and was seconded by Cayetano Coll y Toste y Leonidas Villalón. Cervera’s seconds were Colonel Pedro del Pino and Captain Emilio Barrera. The duel never took place, as Cervera explained his intentions in writing the pamphlet, and all parties were satisfied.[47]
Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, ratified on December 10, 1898, Puerto Rico was annexed by the United States. Spain had lost its last colony in the western hemisphere and the United States gained imperial strength and global presence. The United States established a military government and appointed Major General Nelson A. Miles the first head of the military government established on the island, acting as both head of the army of occupation and administrator of civil affairs.[48] Members of the Spanish forces and civilians who were loyal to the Spanish Crown were allowed to return to Spain. By October 18, the Spanish withdrawal from Puerto Rico was completed as the final troops left San Juan for Spain.[10] Those who belonged to the Spanish military who decided to stay in Puerto Rico were offered the option by the United States to serve in the newly formed “Porto Rico Regiment”. Some took the offer, such as Teófilo Marxuach, a former Lieutenant in the Spanish Army who joined the regiment,[49] and others, such as Capt. Angel Rivero Méndez, declined the offer and retired from the military.[50]
From 1898 to 1900, Puerto Rico was governed by four military officers, Commanding General Nelson A. Miles (1898), Major General John R. Brooke (1898–1898), Major General Guy Vernon Henry (1898–1899) and Major General George Whitefield Davis (1899–1900). Some of these men, such as Miles, Brookes and Henry were experienced veterans of the Indian Wars and, even though they were accustomed to the pacification and administration of the Native Americans, the U.S. Army had no previous experience in the administration of overseas territories.[3] Major General Henry stated:
| “ | It was an entirely new duty for American Army officers. There was no precedent in the experience of these so suddenly placed in charge of this our first real colony, upon which their policy could be based.[3] | ” |
The administration of Puerto Rico was the responsibility of the United States Department of War’s Division of Insular Affairs which was molded after the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Almost immediately, the United States began the “Americanization” process of Puerto Rico. The U.S. occupation brought about a total change in Puerto Rico’s economy and polity and did not apply democratic principles to the colony. Puerto Rico was classified as an “unincorporated territory” which meant that the protections of the United States Constitution did not automatically apply because the island belonged to the U.S., but was not part of the U.S.[51] In 1899, U.S. Senator George Frisbie Hoar described Puerto Ricans as "uneducated, simple-minded and harmless people who were only interested in wine, women, music and dancing" and recommended that Spanish should be abolished in the island’s schools and only English should be taught.[52] Schools became the primary vehicle of Americanization, and initially all classes were taught in English, which also made for a large dropout rate.[51]
On January 15, 1899, the military government changed the name of Puerto Rico to Porto Rico (On May 17, 1932, U.S. Congress changed the name back to "Puerto Rico") and the island’s currency was changed from the Puerto Rican peso to the American dollar, integrating the island’s currency into the U.S. monetary system.[53] The United States exerted their control over the economy of the island by prohibiting Puerto Rico from negotiating commercial treaties with other nations, from determining tariffs, and from shipping goods to the mainland on other than U.S. carriers.[51]
A state of civil disorder existed in the island’s mountainous region after the invasion of the United States. The local Criollo, who now found themselves unemployed and felt that they had been exploited by their former employers, formed bands called “Partidas”. The Partidas, at first attacked and robbed many of the wealthy plantation owners, who were loyal to the Spanish Crown, in vengeance, however they later began to attack the businesses owned by the local natives. One of the most notable leaders of the Partidas was José Maldonado Román a.k.a. “Aguila Blanca”. Maldonado, who operated in the areas of Juana Diaz and Ponce, harassed the Spanish Civil Guard and later did the same to the American Forces. Another factor contributing to the state of civil disorder in the island was the lack of discipline of the American troops which were stationed in the island. These troops were not professional soldiers and were composed of volunteers. Many instances were reported where these men would act disorderly, under the influence of alcohol, and get into fights with the local residents.[54] The state of civil disorder came to a halt in the island after the military government began to rebuilt Puerto Rico’s infrastructure, thereby providing employment for many of the discontent and unemployed population, and when the volunteer troops were replaced by the regular Army.[54]
The United States had outlawed all Puerto Rican currency and declared the island’s peso, whose international value was equal to the U.S. dollar, to be worth only 60 American cents. As a result, every Puerto Rican lost 40% of his or her money overnight. Military rule was replaced by a civilian government by way of the Foraker Act of 1900. However, the Act stipulated that the governor, chief of police and top officials were presidentially appointed and they were all to be Americans.[51] The Foraker Act (with the influence of the American sugar companies) required the removal of a stipulation from a local law which placed a limit of 500 acres (approx. 202.34 hectare) as the amount of land that any one person was allowed to own. Thus the Foraker Act, whose political framework was established by the military and the War Department, transformed Puerto Rico’s diversified agricultural economy (coffee, tobacco, sugar and fruit) into a sugar monoculture economy. Since many Puerto Ricans had 40% less wealth because of the currency change, the farmers had to borrow money from U.S. banks. But with no usury law restrictions, interest rates were so high that, within a decade, the farmers defaulted on their loans and the banks foreclosed on their land. American sugar companies had an advantage over the local sugar plantation owners. The local plantation owner could only finance his operations at local banks which offered high interest rates compared to the low rates that the American companies received from the commercial banks in Wall Street.[55] This factor, plus the tariffs now imposed, forced many of the local sugar plantation owners to go bankrupt or to sell their holdings to the more powerful American sugar companies. Sugar was considered one of the few strategic commodities in which the United States was not fully self sufficient.[55] An example of the American conflict of interest which intertwined politics, the military and sugar commercial interests is Charles Herbert Allen, the first American civilian appointed governor of the island. Allen was a former Assistant Secretary of the Navy and a strong promoter of sugar investments who believed that every acre of rich sugar land in Puerto Rico should be developed. He later became the president of the American Sugar Refining Company, which had large holdings in Puerto Rico. By 1930, most of Puerto Rico’s farmlands belonged to 41 sugar syndicates. 80 percent of these were U.S. owned, and the largest four syndicates – Central Guanica, South Puerto Rico, Fajardo Sugar and East Puerto Rico Sugar – were entirely U.S. owned and covered over half the island’s arable land.[56]
In 1947, the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to democratically elect their own governor, which it first exercised in 1948. The Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by a Constitutional Convention on February 6, 1952, ratified by the U.S. Congress, and approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year. Puerto Rico adopted the name of Estado Libre Asociado (literally translated as "Free Associated State"), officially translated into English as Commonwealth, for its body politic.[57][58][59]
In Puerto Rico there are no monuments to commemorate the Spanish-American War per se. There are various markers where some of the historical events took place and some tombstones which honor both the American invaders and the Spanish and Puerto Rican defenders of the island. In the town of Guanica there is a rock on the coastal port with an inscription indicating that Major General Nelson A. Miles and his men landed on that spot. There is also a monument in the town dedicated to the veterans of the Spanish-American War, however said monument fails to specify to which veterans it is dedicated to, the Americans or the Spanish/Puerto Ricans. In Yauco there is a Monument/tombstone dedicated to an unknown Spanish soldier who had fallen in combat and was left there on that very spot. In Coamo there are two markers that indicate where Rafael Martínez Illescas and Frutos López died. López's tomb is located in the old cemetery of Coamo next to that of the tomb of the three unknown Puerto Rican soldiers who perished in that conflict. Martínez Illescas' body was transferred 1916, to his hometown Cartagena in Spain where he is buried. The town of Guayama has a monument dedicated to the members of the 4th Ohio Infantry. In Asomante, there is a marker which indicates the place where the "Battle of Asomante" took place.[60]